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e were rooted in the familybut
reached out to a wider contituency and gave the lie to the notion
that kinship solidarities per se were inimical to associative ties. Others
consciously and deliberately transcended kinship. Seven innovations
at different levels of organization may be adduced in support of this
picture:
?Firstat the more concrete end of the spectrumin the villages
shaped by the chün-t’iensystem especiallythere was a prolifera-
tion of non-kinship bodies such as crop-watching cooperatives
lion-dance groupsmartial-arts clubstemple-management com-
mittees and so onwhich further south were joined by mediu-
mistic therapy groups and dragon-boat teams. Some of these
appealed directly to those outside established family networks
such as long-term bachelors.
?Secondalong routes and in the towns they connected and served
there developed so-called secret societiesreally ma?as or unions
for people involved in transport businesses such as cooliescarters
and boatmen. Their activities were often located in the inns
and restaurants which reached a new degree of articulation in the
T’ang period.
15Soochow was already famous for its restaurants
in the tenth centuryround tables were preferred to rectang yilai:
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